Journal articles: 'Bow and arrow – North America' – Grafiati (2024)

Abstract:

AbstractUsing several methods to distinguish dart and arrow points, archaeologists have suggested that the bow and arrow appeared in various parts of the world between ˜65,000 and 1,000 years ago. Hildebrandt and King (2012) proposed a dart-arrow index (DAI) to help differentiate dart and arrow points, rejecting claims that the bow and arrow was introduced to western North America prior to the Late Holocene. We used the DAI and other methods to evaluate ˜11,700-year-old projectile points from Santa Rosa Island, obtaining mean values below the threshold for darts, comparable to several North American arrow point types. We have no direct evidence that these small points were used on darts, arrows, or hand-thrown spears, but faunal associations suggest that they may have served as harpoon tips used on atlatl darts to capture birds, fish, and marine mammals. The DAI and other methods for discriminating between dart and arrow points are based almost exclusively on ethnographic and archaeological specimens from interior regions. Our analysis suggests that such methods should not be applied universally, especially in coastal or other aquatic settings, and that archaeologists should continue to critically assess the antiquity of the bow and arrow and the function of projectile points worldwide.

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AbstractWe propose a new method for differentiating archaeological atlatl darts from arrow points. Our dart-arrow index accurately distinguishes known (hafted) archaeological examples of darts and arrows. We find that ethnographic collections of hafted arrows used by previous researchers are problematic, and should not be used as control samples for differentiating darts from arrows. We use the dart-arrow index to reassess the projectile points described by Ames et al. (2010). The analysis shows that Hatwai Eared (4400–2800 B.P.) and Cascade (8500–4500 B.P.) points were darts, not arrows as Ames et al. argue, and that a major revision of the history of bow-and-arrow technology in western North America is unnecessary.

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The timing of the bow and arrow's introduction, spread, and replacement of the atlatl is an important research question in North American prehistory. Although regional archaeologists have not focused on the issue, it is generally thought that the bow and arrow were introduced on the Columbia Plateau ca. 2,300 years ago and completely replaced the atlatl by 1000 B.P. We apply two sets of discriminate functions and four threshold values to three large projectile point samples from the Columbia Plateau and a control sample from the Western Great Basin. Our results indicate that the atlatl was used on the Plateau by ca. 10,800 B.P. While the bow and arrow may have been present by 8500 B.P., they were ubiquitous in the region by 4400 B.P. Atlatl use appears to have increased for a while after 3000 B.P. At the same time, metric differences between dart and arrow points strengthened. Darts became rare after 1500 B.P. but seem to have been in use in small numbers at least until contact.

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North American archaeologists have long been interested in distinguishing between dart and arrow points in order to establish when bow-and-arrow technology was adopted in the Eastern Woodlands. A quantitative analysis of point form and qualitative reconstructions of bifacial reduction trajectories from Plum Bayou culture sites in central Arkansas indicate that arrow points were abruptly adopted and became widespread about A.D. 600. Moreover, arrow points are metrically discrete entities that were not developed through gradual modification of dart points in this region as appears to be the case elsewhere. Comparisons with patterns observed in other regions of the East show significant variation in the timing, rate, and direction of the adoption of the bow and arrow, as well as the role of this technological change in Native American economies and sociopolitics. These observations suggest that the bow and arrow were: (1) introduced significantly earlier than some researchers have posited; (2) independently invented by some groups and diffused to others; and (3) relinquished and later readopted in some areas of the Eastern Woodlands in response to changing social, historical, and environmental conditions. Our data also call into question simple unilinear or diffusionary models that claim to explain the development and spread of this technological innovation.

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The belief that the bow and arrow replaced the spear and/or dart as hunting weapons in eastern North America between 1500 and 1200 B.P. is tested using a classification function that identifies bifaces as either spear/dart or arrow points. Results and their alternative interpretations bear important implications for the timing and nature of the technological transition. Moreover, the economic consequences of the transition are at once subtler and less profound than often supposed. Ethnographic data do not support simple notions of a uniform increase in acquisition efficiency across target species with the adoption of the bow and arrow.

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Parry and Kelly (1987) argued for a causal link between expedient technologies and sedentism, and their explanation has widely influenced lithic analysts. There are some problems with their explanation, however, including disconnects in the reported timing of the shifts to expedient technologies, agricultural intensification, and sedentism. On the other hand, across much of North America the transition to an expedient technology appears to correlate more closely to the arrival of the bow and arrow. This is supported by data from a large excavation project in southern New Mexico, which shows that indicators of the shift to an expedient technology cannot be attributed to reduced mobility or any observable changes in subsistence practices, but do appear to correlate temporally with the appearance of arrow points.

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We synthesize environmental and cultural change following a volcanic eruption at A.D. 846–848 in Subarctic North America to demonstrate how social relationships shaped responses to natural disasters. Ethnohistoric accounts and archaeometric studies reveal differences in human adaptations in the Yukon and Mackenzie river basins that relate to exertions of power over contested resources versus affordances of security to intercept dispersed migrating animals. The ways that pre-contact hunter-gatherers maintained or redressed ecological imbalances influenced respective trajectories of resilience to a major event. Adaptive responses to a volcanic eruption affected the movement of bow and arrow technology and the proliferation of copper use in northwest North America.

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Communal hunting of small game such as hares has probably occurred for 10,000 years in the Great Basin. Ethnohistoric accounts of the nineteenth century indicate that indigenous peoples communally hunted large game (e.g., pronghorn, mountain sheep, deer, bison) across much of western North America including the Plains, desert Southwest, California, and Great Basin subregions, during and immediately preceding the contact era. Research in the Plains subregion suggests that communal large game hunting occurred there prior to the adoption of the bow-and-arrow between ca. 1,500 and 2,000 years ago, and in fact may have occurred as early as 9,000 to 10,000 years ago. Nineteenth- and early twentieth-century ethnohistoric accounts suggest that communal pronghorn (Antilocapra americana) hunts involving the construction of a corral with associated wings were utilized by many Great Basin peoples at the time of historic contact. This paper asks: (1) did communal pronghorn hunts occur prior to the Protohistoric Period (before ca. 600 ¹⁴C B.P.) in the north-central Great Basin? (2) if so, how ancient is this practice? and (3) did the methods or behaviors of the participants of these communal hunts vary through time? Detailed analysis of sites containing dozens, and in many cases, hundreds of projectile points that predate ca. 600 ¹⁴C B.P. found in or near existing juniper branch corrals and wings suggest that communal pronghorn hunting has occurred for at least 4,000 to 5,000 years in the north-central Great Basin. Further, behavioral variability is seen through time in the material remains of these communal hunts, with earlier (Middle Archaic) communal kills characterized by greater use of local toolstone sources, gearing-up just prior to the kill, and perhaps a greater reliance on shooting the trapped pronghorn rather than clubbing compared to Protohistoric communal kills.

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AbstractDespite the rich array of perishables Julian Steward (1937) recovered during his 1930s excavations, the Promontory Cave assemblages were dated in relative terms with just a handful of radiocarbon assays until recently. Yet Promontory Caves 1 and 2 are the type sites from which the Promontory Culture was defined, and these assemblages have a critical bearing on our conception of three significant issues in western North American prehistory: the terminal Fremont transition, Numic expansion, and the potential presence of migrating ancestral Apachean populations. To better fix the age of the Promontory Phase, we have undertaken an additional 45 AMS determinations for Promontory perishables. Because of a research focus concerning Promontory footwear, most age estimates come from moccasins, but we have also dated gaming pieces, a bow, an arrow, netting, basketry, matting, and cordage. With the exception of a winnowing basket fragment and some ceramic residue dates, all Promontory Phase assays are tightly focused in an interval running from 662 to 826 radiocarbon years before present (a calibrated 2s range spanning A.D. 1166–1391). Bayesian analyses of the Cave 1 and 2 Promontory Phase perishables suggest that this late period occupation comprised one or two human generations, centering on the interval running from ca. A.D. 1250–1290.

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Current ecological archaeology, as often practiced, is too closed a system. The realization that introduced external factors may play a role in cultural change as potently as localized mechanisms demands increased attention to analytical boundaries and matters of scale. This article questions the utility and effectiveness of localized adaptive explanations for large-scale historical processes and, as an illustration, considers the prehistoric distribution of the bow in North America from a continental perspective. Criteria used to determine the presence of the bow in the archaeological record are briefly reviewed and a north to south chronological distribution for the initial adoption of the bow is presented.

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Rugose and tabulate corals from the Lower Permian (Wolfcampian) part of the Bird Spring Group in Arrow Canyon, Arrow Canyon Range, Clark County, Nevada, comprise eight species in eight genera. Stylastraea rowetti n. sp. is the first unequivocal record of this genus west of Texas in North America. Heritschiella girtyi, the only endemic North American waagenophyllid genus and species, is recorded outside Kansas for the first time. Paraheritschioides stevensi formerly was known only from northern California. The other species also occur elsewhere in the Permian of Nevada and nearby. This southeast Nevada shelf area has the first known intermixture of corals from the Durhaminid Coral Province and subprovinces of far western North America and the Cyathaxonid Coral Province of middle and southwestern North America.

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In recent years, prehistoric warfare has increasingly attracted the attention of archaeologists in North America, much like other parts of the world. Skeletons with several forms of trauma, including arrow wounds, are often used as evidence of intergroup conflict, although opinion is divided over what these casualties might mean in terms of the effect of warfare on everyday life. Information on 191 patients from the nineteenth-century Indian Wars in the American West indicates that only about one in three arrows damaged bone, and as many as one-half of wounded lived for months or years following their injuries. Arrow wound distributions vary among Indian Wars cases, modern Papua New Guinea patients, and prehistoric skeletons from eastern North America, in large part because of differences in how fighting was conducted. Despite arguments to the contrary, it is reasonable to infer that even low percentages of archaeological skeletons with distinctive conflict-related bone damage indicate that warfare must have had a perceptible impact on ways of life.

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AbstractFive species of Aphis Linnaeus from Leguminosae in North America which have large dorsal sclerotized areas on apterous viviparous females are known: A. craccae Linnaeus, A. craccivora Koch, A. cytisorum Hartig, A. astragalina Hille Ris Lambers, and A. gallowayi sp.nov., described from Astragalus pectinatus Douglas, Bow Valley Provincial Park, Alberta.

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AbstractA few, thin, Mississippian siliciclastic limestone beds, interbedded with ammonoid (uppermost Eumorphoceras Zone)-bearing shales within the South Syncline Ridge section on the Nuclear Test Site in southern Nevada, contain an abundant, low-diversity assemblage of late Serpukhovian/late Chesterian calcareous foraminifers dominated by the archaediscaceans Neoarchaediscus altiluminis, Brenckleina rugosa, Eosigmoilina robertsoni, and Betpakodiscus of the group B. attenuatus. These limestone beds were deposited in a shallow-water, clastic facies of the Scotty Wash Formation and, based on common conodont occurrences, correlate southeast to the Bird Spring Formation below the Mississippian-Pennsylvanian GSSP at Arrow Canyon, Nevada. The South Syncline Ridge foraminifers are comparable to those found in coeval beds at Arrow Canyon and represent the only other known foraminiferal assemblage to exist in association with uppermost Eumorphoceras Zone ammonoids in North America outside of Arkansas in the southern Midcontinent. Reconciliation of regional conodont and ammonoid zonations shows that the range of eosigmoiline foraminifers (E. robertsoni and B. rugosa), now generally considered an upper Serpukhovian index, extends from a position either just below or at the lower-upper boundary of the Serpukhovian Stage into the lower part of the Bashkirian Stage in North America; their upper range falls within the lower part of the Homoceras ammonoid zone beginning in the upper part of the Serpukhovian Stage. Discussion of the foraminiferal taxa includes support for retaining the genus Betpakodiscus rather than synonymizing it under Tubispirodiscus, as proposed by some specialists during the past few years.

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Comparison of Late Paleoindian sites of the Great Plains and Rocky Mountains reveals 36 site components from 28 sites containing ground stone tools, including nine Cody Complex examples. Much of the ground stone use appears related to generalized activity, as few items have functionally specific forms. However, the Cody components have an unexpectedly higher number of grooved abraders as compared to other complexes. We note that Paleoindian examples contain wider u-shaped grooves compared to Late Prehistoric/Protohistoric abraders related to arrow production. We argue that Paleoindian abraders represent shaft abraders, used in the production of dart shafts within weaponry systems. We propose several hypotheses for the emergence of this technology during Cody times. The most parsimonious explanation is that the specific sites containing these abraders represent large camps, occupied for long periods and containing diverse chipped and ground stone assemblages.

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Public compliance with social distancing is key to containing COVID-19, yet there is a lack of knowledge on which communication ‘messages’ drive compliance. Respondents (224 Canadians and Americans) rated combinations of messages about compliance, systematically varied by an experimental design. Independent variables were perceived risk; the agent communicating the policy; specific social distancing practices; and methods to enforce compliance. Response patterns to each message suggest three mindset segments in each country reflecting how a person thinks. Two mindsets, the same in Canada and the US, were ‘tell me exactly what to do,’ and ‘pandemic onlookers.’ The third was ‘bow to authority’ in Canada, and ‘tell me how’ in the US. Each mindset showed different messages strongly driving compliance. To effectively use messaging about compliance, policy makers may assign any person or group in the population to the appropriate mindset segment by using a Personal Viewpoint Identifier that we developed.

Abstract:

Protected–permissive left turn (PPLT) phasing has been popular and widely used in many urban intersections in North America because of its operational benefits. A significant number of intersections have recently been upgraded with four-section signal heads with flashing yellow arrow (FYA) indication for an effective protected–permissive left turn operation. The present study seeks to find appropriate length of two red intervals whose roles are important, but different during the transition period of FYA-PPLT phasing. One is a red interval for delayed-start of permissive left turn movements; the other is additional red interval for delayed-start of opposing through movements. Micro-traffic simulation and conflict analysis are explored to assess the effects of the red intervals on intersection efficiency and safety. A useful reference, which describes the balanced length of the two red intervals under varying traffic levels, is developed as a result.

Abstract:

2011 was a lacklustre year for Australian hydrocarbon production, however a stellar year for LNG development. Domestic gas production was flat despite two new gas developments, Reindeer/Devil Creek and Halyard/Spar, which came into production during the year. Oil production fell, primarily due to the redevelopment of North West Shelf oil facilities, with Kitan in the Timor Sea being the only new offshore oil field that commenced production. LNG production was also flat however, Final Investment Decisions (FID) were announced for five new LNG projects, including Ichthys early in 2012, bringing the combined value of all eight sanctioned LNG projects to more than $180 billion. This is a huge volume of development, not only for the industry but for the whole Australian economy. Importantly, it has also moved Australia closer to becoming the world’s largest LNG producer. Increasing development costs and competition for skilled labour still remain the biggest challenges for the industry. Introduction of the carbon tax was also an important development in 2011, marking a significant step towards a low-carbon economy and increasing the opportunity for natural gas, but also burdening trade-exposed industries like LNG. The success of unconventional gas in the United States and CSG in Australia has sparked a step-change in exploration and development of unconventional gas in onshore Australia. Consolidation in coal seam gas sector continued on the east coast with the two acquisitions of Eastern Star Gas by Santos and Bow Energy by Arrow Energy. Continuing to effectively engage with the community will be central to the industry’s success.

Abstract:

Celtic traditional musics, such as those originating in Ireland and Scotland, are typically transmitted outside formal avenues. Most studies regarding the learning of Celtic traditional music have focused on the experience of teachers and students, but less is known about the philosophies of organization directors who create contexts for teacher–student interactions. In an effort to fill this gap, this qualitative interview study examines the perspectives of nine directors of organizations located in Europe and North America dedicated to teaching Celtic traditional music. Analysis showed that directors perceived the aural transmission of the music as helping students connect with each other and build community. Further, directors’ beliefs about history tended to motivate their decision-making processes toward fostering community as part of their pedagogical practice. The learning goals they set for students tended to emphasize these intangible goals over and above technique- or repertoire-related aims, with social skills being included in their definitions of “musicianship.” Implications are raised regarding meaning-making and beliefs about history in Celtic traditional music communities.

Abstract:

Bears (Ursus spp.) in North America eat the seeds of several pines (Pinus spp.), including Limber Pine (P. flexilis E. James). Information on use of Limber Pine in Canada is limited to a report of three bear scats containing pine seeds found in Limber Pine stands of southwestern Alberta. After my preliminary fieldwork in Banff National Park revealed that bears were eating seeds of Limber Pine there, I conducted a field study in 2014–2015 to assess this use. Because bears typically obtain pine seeds from cone caches (middens) made by Red Squirrels (Tamiasciurus hudsonicus), I described the abundance, habitat characteristics, and use by bears of Red Squirrel middens in and adjacent to Limber Pine stands at six study sites. On Bow River escarpments, I found abundant Limber Pines (basal area 1–9 m2/ha) and middens (0.8 middens/ha, standard deviation [SD] 0.2). Of 24 middens, 13 (54%) had been excavated by bears, and three bear scats composed of pine seeds were found beside middens. Although Limber Pines occurred on steep, xeric, windswept slopes (mean 28°, SD 3), middens occurred on moderate slopes (mean 12°, SD 3) in escarpment gullies and at the toe of slopes in forests of other species, particularly Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii). At the five other study sites, I found little or no use of Limber Pine seeds by bears, suggesting that Limber Pine habitat may be little used by bears unless the pines are interspersed with (non-Limber Pine) habitat with greater forest cover and less-steep slopes where squirrels establish middens. These observations provide managers with an additional piece of information regarding potential drivers of bear activity in the human-dominated landscape of Banff National Park’s lower Bow Valley.

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Abstract. A fast response ozone analyzer based on the ozone-nitric oxide chemiluminescence method was integrated into the NOAA-ESRL flux system to achieve the first ship-borne, direct ozone flux measurements over the open ocean. Air was collected from an inlet at 18 m height over the ocean surface mounted to the bow-jackstaff and via a 30 m-long sampling line to the ozone instrument on the ship deck. A "puff" system was used for accurate and regular determination of the sample transport time (lag) between the inlet and the chemical analyzer. A Nafion-membrane dryer facilitated removal of fast water vapor fluctuations, which eliminated the need for quenching and density correction of the ozone signal. The sampling-analyzer system was found to have a ~0.25–0.40 s response time at a sensitivity of ~2800 counts s−1 per ppbv of ozone. Quality control and data filtering procedures for eliminating data that did not meet measurement requirements were critically evaluated. The new ozone flux system was deployed during several cruises aboard the NOAA Ship Ronald H. Brown, and evaluated using results obtained during several research cruises off the coasts of the North and South America continents.

Abstract:

Rugose and tabulate corals from the Lower Permian (Wolfcampian) part of the Bird Spring Group in the Providence Mountains, San Bernardino County, southeastern California, comprise eight species in eight genera. Heritschioides mckassoni n. sp. is the lowest stratigraphic record for this index genus on the undoubted shelf of western North America. Paraheritschioides applegatei n. sp. is the first record for the genus in southern California. Neomultithecopora providensis n. sp. is a second species for the genus in the southern Great Basin. The other five species provide close ties to previously described faunas from the Spring Mountains and the Arrow Canyon Range of southwestern and southeastern Nevada. The combined Wolfcampian coral faunas of these three areas are somewhat closer at the genus and species level to the McCloud Limestone Wolfcampian faunas of northern California than to the Wolfcampian shelf faunas in east-central Nevada. Additional species present in the combined faunas are known originally from the Wolfcampian of central Nevada and Kansas and a genus is not otherwise known south of British Columbia. The faunas suggest a subprovince of the Durhaminid Coral Province for the southern California and southern Nevada area and perhaps imply partial isolation from the more northerly parts of the province by land barriers such as the Antler Highlands.

Abstract:

Abstract. A fast response ozone analyzer based on the ozone-nitric oxide chemiluminescence method was integrated into the NOAA-ESRL flux system to achieve the first ship-borne, direct ozone flux measurements over the open ocean. Air was collected from an inlet at 18 m height over the ocean surface mounted to the bow-jackstaff and via a 30 m-long sampling line to the ozone instrument on the ship deck. A "puff" system was used for accurate and regular determination of the sample transport time (lag) between the inlet and the chemical analyzer. A Nafion-membrane dryer facilitated removal of fast water vapor fluctuations, which eliminated the need for quenching and density correction of the ozone signal. The sampling-analyzer system was found to have a ~0.25–0.40 s response time at a sensitivity of ~2800 counts s−1 per ppbv of ozone. Quality control and data filtering procedures for eliminating data that did not meet measurement requirements were critically evaluated. The new ozone flux system was deployed aboard the NOAA Ship Ronald H. Brown, and evaluated using results obtained during several research cruises off the coasts of the North and South America continents, yielding ozone deposition velocities (mean ± standard error) ranging from 0.009±0.001 cm s−1 to 0.24±0.020 cm s−1.

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This ethnographic study of the ancestral skills movement focuses on the ways that participants use tools in practices such as fire making and bow hunting to ritualize relationships with the more-than-human natural world. Ethnographic methods were supplemented with Internet research on the websites of teachers, schools, and organizations of this movement that emerged in North America in the 1980s and has recently experienced rapid growth. At ancestral skills gatherings, ritual activities among attendees, as well as between people and plants, nonhuman animals, stone, clay, and fire helped create a sense of a common way of life. I place ancestral skills practitioners in the context of other antimodernist movements focusing on tools, crafts, self-reliance, and the pursuit of a simpler way of life. The ancestral skills movement has a clear message about what the good life should consist of: Deep knowledge about the places we live, the ability to make and use tools out of rocks, plants, and nonhuman animals, and the ability to use these tools to live a simpler life. Their vision of the future is one in which humans feel more at home in the wild and contribute to preserving wild places and the skills to live in them.

Abstract:

TPS9633 Background: RET gene fusions have been identified as oncogenic drivers in multiple tumor types, including 1-2% of NSCLC, but no selective RET inhibitors are approved for use. The investigational RET inhibitor, pralsetinib, potently and selectively targets oncogenic RET alterations, including those that confer resistance to multikinase inhibitors. In the registration-enabling phase 1/2 study (ARROW; NCT03037385), pts with RET-fusion+ NSCLC treated with 400 mg once daily (QD) of pralsetinib (N = 80) after platinum-based chemotherapy achieved an overall response rate (ORR) of 61% (95% CI 50, 72; 2 responses pending confirmation) per independent central review. In addition, a promising ORR of 73% (all centrally confirmed responses) was attained in the treatment naïve cohort (N = 26). Most treatment-related adverse events were grade 1-2 across the entire safety population treated at 400 mg QD (N = 354). AcceleRET Lung, an international, open-label, randomized, phase 3 study, will evaluate the efficacy and safety of pralsetinib versus standard of care (SOC) for first-line treatment of advanced/metastatic RET fusion+ NSCLC (NCT04222972). Methods: Approximately 250 pts with metastatic RET-fusion+ NSCLC will be randomized 1:1 to oral pralsetinib (400 mg QD) or SOC (non-squamous histology: platinum/pemetrexed ± pembrolizumab followed by maintenance pemetrexed ± pembrolizumab; squamous histology: platinum/gemcitabine). Stratification factors include intended use of pembrolizumab, history of brain metastases, and ECOG PS. Key eligibility criteria include no prior systemic treatment for metastatic disease; RET-fusion+ tumor by local or central assessment; no additional actionable oncogenic drivers; no prior selective RET inhibitor; measurable disease per RECIST v1.1. Pts randomized to SOC will be permitted to cross-over to receive pralsetinib upon disease progression. The primary endpoint is progression-free survival (blinded independent central review; RECIST v1.1). Secondary endpoints include ORR, overall survival, duration of response, disease control rate, clinical benefit rate, time to intracranial progression, intracranial ORR, safety/tolerability and quality of life evaluations. Recruitment has begun with sites (active or planned) in North America, Europe and Asia. Clinical trial information: NCT04222972 .

Abstract:

This work is focused in the study of Patagonian lithic projectile points shape variation from a phylogenetic perspective pursuing three main aims: first, generate a model of projectile point shape diversification and morphospace evolution; second, estimate shape variation through time, and finally, assess the robustness of previous results using the same methods but in a larger sample with better spatial coverage. A previous work using geometric morphometric and cladistic methods suggested a pattern of general morphological diversification across Patagonia related, at least in part, to the spatial distance between cases, distinguishing two main clades in northern (43-45° S) and southern (50-52° S) Patagonia. In the present work to study this pattern in a more detailed level, a sample of ca. 1200 projectile points was used to obtain statistically different morphological classes performing unsupervised K-means searching. Shape characters were used to describe the different taxonomic units and to perform the phylogenetic analysis (through the Neighbor Joining and Maximun Parsimony methods) using as an ancestor the earliest point type known to the region (Fishtail point). The new results suggest that projectile points with longer and narrow blades and smaller stems evolved later in Patagonia and occupy a different sector of morphospace that could be related to the emergence of different technical systems, like the bow and arrow. However, these results do not support the previous ones of a projectile point diversification pattern mediated by spatial distance, maybe due to the reduction of contrast between the extreme north and south of Patagonia by the larger spatial coverage used in the present analysis.

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Contact dermatitis is an acute or chronic skin inflammation resulting from interaction with a chemical, biologic, or physical agent. This chapter discusses the major types of contact dermatitis, including irritant contact dermatitis and allergic contact dermatitis (ACD), and their predisposing factors, pathogenesis, diagnosis, risk reduction, and treatment. Also reviewed are specific etiologic forms of contact dermatitis (including topical medication allergy dermatitis, systemic contact dermatitis, clothing, textile and shoe dermatitis, and occupational contact dermatitis) as well as subtypes of contact dermatitis (including photosensitivity and latex allergy dermatitis). Figures show different types of dermatitis (such as chronic eczematous dermatitis, acute and ACD, and photocontact dermatitis), along with specific reactions from causes such as wearing a bib, a leather hatband, or sandals and from poison oak, glyceryl thioglycolate, tosylamide formaldehyde resin, rosin applied to a violin bow, bacitracin, and powdered natural rubber latex gloves. Tables list body sites affected by contact allergens, misconceptions about ACD, criteria for determining who should be given a patch test, key points in diagnosis of ACD, North America patch-test results from 2003 through 2004, topical sensitizers and potential systemic cross-reactants, substances that may cause systemic contact dermatitis, clinical features of systemic contact dermatitis, criteria for establishing occupational causation of contact dermatitis, topical and systemic photosensitizers, and distinguishing features of phototoxic versus photoallergic contact dermatitis. A sidebar lists Internet resources on contact dermatitis. This review contains 12 highly rendered figures, 11 tables, and 160 references.

Abstract:

IntroductionCirque du Soleil, the largest live entertainment company in the world, has eight standing shows in Las Vegas alone, KÀ, Love, Mystère, Zumanity, Believe, Michael Jackson ONE, Zarkana and O. Close to 150 million spectators have seen Cirque du Soleil shows since the company’s beginnings in 1984 and it is estimated that over 15 million spectators will see a Cirque du Soleil show in 2014 (Cirque du Soleil). The Cirque du Soleil concept of circus as a form of theatre, with simple, often archetypal, narrative arcs conveyed without words, virtuoso physicality with the circus artists presented as characters in a fictional world, cutting-edge lighting and visuals, extraordinary innovative staging, and the uptake of new technology for special effects can all be linked back to an early form of circus which is sometimes termed illegitimate circus. In the late 18th century and early 19th century, in the age of Romanticism, only two theatres in London, Covent Garden and Drury Lane, plus the summer theatre in the Haymarket, had royal patents allowing them to produce plays or text-based productions, and these were considered legitimate theatres. (These theatres retained this monopoly until the Theatre Regulation Act of 1843; Saxon 301.) Other circuses and theatres such as Astley’s Amphitheatre, which were precluded from performing text-based works by the terms of their licenses, have been termed illegitimate (Moody 1). Perversely, the effect of licensing venues in this way, instead of having the desired effect of enshrining some particular forms of expression and “casting all others beyond the cultural pale,” served instead to help to cultivate a different kind of theatrical landscape, “a theatrical terrain with a new, rich and varied dramatic ecology” (Reed 255). A fundamental change to the theatrical culture of London took place, and pivotal to “that transformation was the emergence of an illegitimate theatrical culture” (Moody 1) with circus at its heart. An innovative and different form of performance, a theatre of the body, featuring spectacle and athleticism emerged, with “a sensuous, spectacular aesthetic largely wordless except for the lyrics of songs” (Bratton 117).This writing sets out to explore some of the strong parallels between the aesthetic that emerged in this early illegitimate circus and the aesthetic of the Montreal-based, multi-billion dollar entertainment empire of Cirque du Soleil. Although it is not fighting against legal restrictions and can in no way be considered illegitimate, the circus of Cirque du Soleil can be seen to be the descendant of the early circus entrepreneurs and their illegitimate aesthetic which arose out of the desire to find ways to continue to attract audiences to their shows in spite of the restrictions of the licenses granted to them. BackgroundCircus has served as an inspiration for many innovatory theatre productions including Peter Brook’s Midsummer Night’s Dream (1970) and Tom Stoppard’s Jumpers (1972) as well as the earlier experiments of Meyerhold, Eisenstein, Mayakovsky and other Soviet directors of the 1920’s (Saxon 299). A. H. Saxon points out, however, that the relationship between circus and theatre is a long-standing one that begins in the late 18th century and the early 19th century, when circus itself was theatre (Saxon 299).Modern circus was founded in London in 1768 by an ex-cavalryman and his wife, Philip and Patty Astley, and consisted of spectacular stunt horse riding taking place in a ring, with acts from traditional fairs such as juggling, acrobatics, clowning and wire-walking inserted to cover the changeovers between riding acts. From the very first shows entry was by paid ticket only and the early history of circus was driven by innovative, risk-taking entrepreneurs such as Philip Astley, who indeed built so many new amphitheatres for his productions that he became known as Amphi-Philip (Jando). After years of legal tussles with the authorities concerning the legal status of this new entertainment, a limited license was finally granted in 1783 for Astley’s Amphitheatre. This license precluded the performing of plays, anything text-based, or anything which had a script that resembled a play. Instead the annual license granted allowed only for “public dancing and music” and “other public entertainments of like kind” (St. Leon 9).Corporeal Dramaturgy and TextIn the face of the ban on scripted text, illegitimate circus turned to the human body and privileged it as a means of dramatic expression. A resultant dramaturgy focusing on the expressive capabilities of the performers’ bodies emerged. “The primacy of rhetoric and the spoken word in legitimate drama gave way […] to a corporeal dramaturgy which privileged the galvanic, affective capacity of the human body as a vehicle of dramatic expression” (Moody 83). Moody proposes that the “iconography of illegitimacy participated in a broader cultural and scientific transformation in which the human body began to be understood as an eloquent compendium of visible signs” (83). Even though the company has the use of text and dramatic dialogue freely available to it, Cirque du Soleil, shares this investment in the bodies of the performers and their “galvanic, affective capacity” (83) to communicate with the audience directly without the use of a scripted text, and this remains a constant between the two forms of circus. Robert Lepage, the director of two Cirque du Soleil shows, KÀ (2004) and more recently Totem (2010), speaking about KÀ in 2004, said, “We wanted it to be an epic story told not with the use of words, but with the universal language of body movement” (Lepage cited in Fink).In accordance with David Graver’s system of classifying performers’ bodies, Cirque du Soleil’s productions most usually present performers’ ‘character bodies’ in which the performers are understood by spectators to be playing fictional roles or characters (Hurley n/p) and this was also the case with illegitimate circus which right from its very beginnings presented its performers within narratives in which the performers are understood to be playing characters. In Cirque du Soleil’s shows, as with illegitimate circus, this presentation of the performers’ character bodies is interspersed with acts “that emphasize the extraordinary training and physical skill of the performers, that is which draw attention to the ‘performer body’ but always within the context of an overall narrative” (Fricker n.p.).Insertion of Vital TextAfter audience feedback, text was eventually added into KÀ (2004) in the form of a pre-recorded prologue inserted to enable people to follow the narrative arc, and in the show Wintuk (2007) there are tales that are sung by Jim Comcoran (Leroux 126). Interestingly early illegitimate circus creators, in their efforts to circumvent the ban on using dramatic dialogue, often inserted text into their performances in similar ways to the methods Cirque du Soleil chose for KÀ and Wintuk. Illegitimate circus included dramatic recitatives accompanied by music to facilitate the following of the storyline (Moody 28) in the same way that Cirque du Soleil inserted a pre-recorded prologue to KÀ to enable audience members to understand the narrative. Performers in illegitimate circus often conveyed essential information to the audience as lyrics of songs (Bratton 117) in the same way that Jim Comcoran does in Wintuk. Dramaturgical StructuresAstley from his very first circus show in 1768 began to set his equestrian stunts within a narrative. Billy Button’s Ride to Brentford (1768), showed a tailor, a novice rider, mounting backwards, losing his belongings and being thrown off the horse when it bucks. The act ends with the tailor being chased around the ring by his horse (Schlicke 161). Early circus innovators, searching for dramaturgy for their shows drew on contemporary warfare, creating vivid physical enactments of contemporary battles. They also created a new dramatic form known as Hippodramas (literally ‘horse dramas’ from hippos the Attic Greek for Horse), a hybridization of melodrama and circus featuring the trick riding skills of the early circus pioneers. The narrative arcs chosen were often archetypal or sourced from well-known contemporary books or poems. As Moody writes, at the heart of many of these shows “lay an archetypal narrative of the villainous usurper finally defeated” (Moody 30).One of the first hippodramas, The Blood Red Knight, opened at Astley’s Amphitheatre in 1810.Presented in dumbshow, and interspersed with grand chivalric processions, the show featured Alphonso’s rescue of his wife Isabella from her imprisonment and forced marriage to the evil knight Sir Rowland and concluded with the spectacular, fiery destruction of the castle and Sir Rowland’s death. (Moody 69)Another later hippodrama, The Spectre Monarch and his Phantom Steed, or the Genii Horseman of the Air (1830) was set in China where the rightful prince was ousted by a Tartar usurper who entered into a pact with the Spectre Monarch and received,a magic ring, by aid of which his unlawful desires were instantly gratified. Virtue, predictably won out in the end, and the discomforted villain, in a final settling of accounts with his dread master was borne off through the air in a car of fire pursued by Daemon Horsemen above THE GREAT WALL OF CHINA. (Saxon 303)Karen Fricker writes of early Cirque du Soleil shows that “while plot is doubtless too strong a word, each of Cirque’s recent shows has a distinct concept or theme, that is urbanity for Saltimbanco; nomadism in Varekai (2002) and humanity’s clownish spirit for Corteo (2005), and tend to follow the same very basic storyline, which is not narrated in words but suggested by the staging that connects the individual acts” (Fricker n/p). Leroux describes the early Cirque du Soleil shows as following a “proverbial and well-worn ‘collective transformation trope’” (Leroux 122) whilst Peta Tait points out that the narrative arc of Cirque du Soleil “ might be summarized as an innocent protagonist, often female, helped by an older identity, seemingly male, to face a challenging journey or search for identity; more generally, old versus young” (Tait 128). However Leroux discerns an increasing interest in narrative devices such as action and plot in Cirque du Soleil’s Las Vegas productions (Leroux 122). Fricker points out that “with KÀ, what Cirque sought – and indeed found in Lepage’s staging – was to push this storytelling tendency further into full-fledged plot and character” (Fricker n/p). Telling a story without words, apart from the inserted prologue, means that the narrative arc of Kà is, however, very simple. A young prince and princess, twins in a mythical Far Eastern kingdom, are separated when a ceremonial occasion is interrupted by an attack by a tribe of enemy warriors. A variety of adventures follow, most involving perilous escapes from bad guys with flaming arrows and fierce-looking body tattoos. After many trials, a happy reunion arrives. (Isherwood)This increasing emphasis on developing a plot and a narrative arc positions Cirque as moving closer in dramaturgical aesthetic to illegitimate circus.Visual TechnologiesTo increase the visual excitement of its shows and compensate for the absence of spoken dialogue, illegitimate circus in the late 18th and early 19th century drew on contemporaneous and emerging visual technologies. Some of the new visual technologies that Astley’s used have been termed pre-cinematic, including the panorama (or diorama as it is sometimes called) and “the phantasmagoria and other visual machines… [which] expanded the means through which an audience could be addressed” (O’Quinn, Governance 312). The panorama or diorama ran in the same way that a film runs in an analogue camera, rolling between vertical rollers on either side of the stage. In Astley’s production The Siege and Storming of Seringapatam (1800) he used another effect almost equivalent to a modern day camera zoom-in by showing scenic back drops which, as they moved through time, progressively moved geographically closer to the battle. This meant that “the increasing enlargement of scale-each successive scene has a smaller geographic space-has a telescopic event. Although the size of the performance space remains constant, the spatial parameters of the spectacle become increasingly magnified” (O’Quinn, Governance 345). In KÀ, Robert Lepage experiments with “cinematographic stage storytelling on a very grand scale” (Fricker n.p.). A KÀ press release (2005) from Cirque du Soleil describes the show “as a cinematic journey of aerial adventure” (Cirque du Soleil). Cirque du Soleil worked with ground-breaking visual technologies in KÀ, developing an interactive projected set. This involves the performers controlling what happens to the projected environment in real time, with the projected scenery responding to their movements. The performers’ movements are tracked by an infra-red sensitive camera above the stage, and by computer software written by Interactive Production Designer Olger Förterer. “In essence, what we have is an intelligent set,” says Förterer. “And everything the audience sees is created by the computer” (Cirque du Soleil).Contemporary Technology Cutting edge technologies, many of which came directly from contemporaneous warfare, were introduced into the illegitimate circus performance space by Astley and his competitors. These included explosions using redfire, a new military explosive that combined “strontia, shellac and chlorate of potash, [which] produced […] spectacular flame effects” (Moody 28). Redfire was used for ‘blow-ups,’ the spectacular explosions often occurring at the end of the performance when the villain’s castle or hideout was destroyed. Cirque du Soleil is also drawing on contemporary military technology for performance projects. Sparked: A Live interaction between Humans and Quadcopters (2014) is a recent short film released by Cirque du Soleil, which features the theatrical use of drones. The new collaboration between Cirque du Soleil, ETH Zurich and Verity Studios uses 10 quadcopters disguised as animated lampshades which take to the air, “carrying out the kinds of complex synchronized dance manoeuvres we usually see from the circus' famed acrobats” (Huffington Post). This shows, as with early illegitimate circus, the quick theatrical uptake of contemporary technology originally developed for use in warfare.Innovative StagingArrighi writes that the performance space that Astley developed was a “completely new theatrical configuration that had not been seen in Western culture before… [and] included a circular ring (primarily for equestrian performance) and a raised theatre stage (for pantomime and burletta)” (177) joined together by ramps that were large enough and strong enough to allow horses to be ridden over them during performances. The stage at Astley’s Amphitheatre was said to be the largest in Europe measuring over 130 feet across. A proscenium arch was installed in 1818 which could be adjusted in full view of the audience with the stage opening changing anywhere in size from forty to sixty feet (Saxon 300). The staging evolved so that it had the capacity to be multi-level, involving “immense [moveable] platforms or floors, rising above each other, and extending the whole width of the stage” (Meisel 214). The ability to transform the stage by the use of draped and masked platforms which could be moved mechanically, proved central to the creation of the “new hybrid genre of swashbuckling melodramas on horseback, or ‘hippodramas’” (Kwint, Leisure 46). Foot soldiers and mounted cavalry would fight their way across the elaborate sets and the production would culminate with a big finale that usually featured a burning castle (Kwint, Legitimization 95). Cirque du Soleil’s investment in high-tech staging can be clearly seen in KÀ. Mark Swed writes that KÀ is, “the most lavish production in the history of Western theatre. It is surely the most technologically advanced” (Swed). With a production budget of $165 million (Swed), theatre designer Michael Fisher has replaced the conventional stage floor with two huge moveable performance platforms and five smaller platforms that appear to float above a gigantic pit descending 51 feet below floor level. One of the larger platforms is a tatami floor that moves backwards and forwards, the other platform is described by the New York Times as being the most thrilling performer in the show.The most consistently thrilling performer, perhaps appropriately, isn't even human: It's the giant slab of machinery that serves as one of the two stages designed by Mark Fisher. Here Mr. Lepage's ability to use a single emblem or image for a variety of dramatic purposes is magnified to epic proportions. Rising and falling with amazing speed and ease, spinning and tilting to a full vertical position, this huge, hydraulically powered game board is a sandy beach in one segment, a sheer cliff wall in another and a battleground, viewed from above, for the evening's exuberantly cinematic climax. (Isherwood)In the climax a vertical battle is fought by aerialists fighting up and down the surface of the sand stone cliff with defeated fighters portrayed as tumbling down the surface of the cliff into the depths of the pit below. Cirque du Soleil’s production entitled O, which phonetically is the French word eau meaning water, is a collaboration with director Franco Dragone that has been running at Las Vegas’ Bellagio Hotel since 1998. O has grossed over a billion dollars since it opened in 1998 (Sylt and Reid). It is an aquatic circus or an aquadrama. In 1804, Charles Dibdin, one of Astley’s rivals, taking advantage of the nearby New River, “added to the accoutrements of the Sadler’s Wells Theatre a tank three feet deep, ninety feet long and as wide as twenty-four feet which could be filled with water from the New River” (Hays and Nickolopoulou 171) Sadler’s Wells presented aquadramas depicting many reconstructions of famous naval battles. One of the first of these was The Siege of Gibraltar (1804) that used “117 ships designed by the Woolwich Dockyard shipwrights and capable of firing their guns” (Hays and Nickolopoulou 5). To represent the drowning Spanish sailors saved by the British, “Dibdin used children, ‘who were seen swimming and affecting to struggle with the waves’”(5).O (1998) is the first Cirque production to be performed in a proscenium arch theatre, with the pool installed behind the proscenium arch. “To light the water in the pool, a majority of the front lighting comes from a subterranean light tunnel (at the same level as the pool) which has eleven 4" thick Plexiglas windows that open along the downstage perimeter of the pool” (Lampert-Greaux). Accompanied by a live orchestra, performers dive into the 53 x 90 foot pool from on high, they swim underwater lit by lights installed in the subterranean light tunnel and they also perform on perforated platforms that rise up out of the water and turn the pool into a solid stage floor. In many respects, Cirque du Soleil can be seen to be the inheritors of the spectacular illegitimate circus of the 18th and 19th Century. The inheritance can be seen in Cirque du Soleil’s entrepreneurial daring, the corporeal dramaturgy privileging the affective power of the body over the use of words, in the performers presented primarily as character bodies, and in the delivering of essential text either as a prologue or as lyrics to songs. It can also be seen in Cirque du Soleil’s innovative staging design, the uptake of military based technology and the experimentation with cutting edge visual effects. Although re-invigorating the tradition and creating spectacular shows that in many respects are entirely of the moment, Cirque du Soleil’s aesthetic roots can be clearly seen to draw deeply on the inheritance of illegitimate circus.ReferencesBratton, Jacky. “Romantic Melodrama.” The Cambridge Companion to British Theatre 1730-1830. Eds. Jane Moody and Daniel O'Quinn. Cambridge: Cambridge University, 2007. 115-27. Bratton, Jacky. “What Is a Play? 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